Evaluating Compiler Optimization Impacts on zkVM Performance

Abstract

Zero-knowledge proofs (ZKPs) are the cornerstone of programmable cryptography. They enable (1) privacy-preserving and verifiable computation across blockchains, and (2) an expanding range of off-chain applications such as credential schemes. Zero-knowledge virtual machines (zkVMs) lower the barrier by turning ZKPs into a drop-in backend for standard compilation pipelines. This lets developers write proof-generating programs in conventional languages (e.g., Rust or C++) instead of hand-crafting arithmetic circuits. However, these VMs inherit compiler infrastructures tuned for traditional architectures rather than for proof systems. In particular, standard compiler optimizations assume features that are absent in zkVMs, including cache locality, branch prediction, or instruction-level parallelism. Therefore, their impact on proof generation is questionable. We present the first systematic study of the impact of compiler optimizations on zkVMs. We evaluate 64 LLVM passes, six standard optimization levels, and an unoptimized baseline across 58 benchmarks on two RISC-V-based zkVMs (RISC Zero and SP1). While standard LLVM optimization levels do improve zkVM performance (over 40%), their impact is far smaller than on traditional CPUs, since their decisions rely on hardware features rather than proof constraints. Guided by a fine-grained pass-level analysis, we slightly refine a small set of LLVM passes to be zkVM-aware, improving zkVM execution time by up to 45% (average +4.6% on RISC Zero, +1% on SP1) and achieving consistent proving-time gains. Our work highlights the potential of compiler-level optimizations for zkVM performance and opens new direction for zkVM-specific passes, backends, and superoptimizers.